In the Clean Air Strategy, we set out our aim to reduce fine particulate matter emissions from all sources against the 2005 baseline by 30% by 2020, and 46% by 2030. In February 2022 we published updated emissions estimates for 2020 which showed that PM2.5 emissions have reduced by 34% compared to 2005.

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) is one of a group of thousands of substances collectively called poly- and per-fluorinated substances (PFAS), which are highly persistent in the environment. As a group they are being considered under a risk management options analysis under UK chemical regulation (UK REACH). The Environment Agency (EA) also considers TFA as part of its priority and early warning system for chemicals.

We are aware of some concerns raised about TFA and trifluoroacetate in relation to the breakdown of certain refrigerants, in particular hydrofluoro-olefins (HFOs). HFOs are used increasingly as replacements for hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) due to their much lower Global Warming Potential.

HFCs are powerful greenhouse gases and their use is being phased down. Defra is reviewing the legislation covering HFCs to ascertain whether we can go further in support of the UK's net zero target. This will include assessing the adequacy of existing leak prevention, detection and repair measures, as well as the possibility of reducing further the use of HFCs.

The 2018 UN Montreal Protocol Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) report concluded there was minimal risk to human health or the environment from TFA from HFOs used as refrigerants. However, we continue to monitor the latest scientific assessments and will take on board their conclusions, including as part of our review.

Activities with the potential to impact upon the quality of groundwater are regulated through the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016 (EPR). The EPR provide for ongoing supervision and control by the EA to ensure that groundwater activities are only permitted to operate where the risks to groundwater are well understood and mitigated. The EA does not currently monitor TFA in groundwater.

Refrigerants used in ground source heat pumps are designed and installed to be contained within closed loop systems having no connection to the surrounding environment. Should any evidence show that systems have leaked, the EA has powers to serve notices requiring remediation of any impacted groundwater, surface water or soils.

Drinking water quality is a devolved matter and the information provided therefore relates to England only.

The Drinking Water Regulations require that, in order to be considered “wholesome”, drinking water must not contain any substance at a level which would constitute a potential danger to human health.

The topic of PFAS substances is not new. The Drinking Water Inspectorate has provided guidance to water companies since 2009 and this has recently been updated to reflect current knowledge. The guidance requires water companies to ensure these chemicals are adequately considered in their risk assessments. Should the EA find evidence to suggest that the closed loop systems have leaked, it will inform relevant water companies of any potential risk, and the water companies will consider initiating monitoring for the chemicals at any of their works where appropriate.

The measures included in the Air Quality (Domestic Solid Fuels Standards) (England) Regulations 2020 will not apply directly to steam locomotives. Although the domestic coal market represents less than 5% of national coal demand, we acknowledge that our plans may impact on the supply of fuels to some organisations. We have listened to the concerns raised by heritage bodies during our consultation on these measures, and we have engaged with the All Party Parliamentary Group on Heritage Rail’s enquiry. This did not quantify the direct costs to this sector from a ban on the sale of domestic coal but did recommend that a longer transition period be included in Government plans. We have taken this into account in our proposals, with a longer transition period being given to the phasing out of direct deliveries of loose coal via approved coal merchants, allowing organisations time to adjust to the change in legislation.

The Government intends to introduce a mandatory certification scheme demonstrating that wood sold in volumes under 2m³ is dry (less than 20% moisture). This will apply from one year from publication of the Government Response to allow existing stocks to be used up. Small suppliers will have an extra year to comply. This is to give them time to season their wood down to the required level or consider changes to their business model. A proportionate approach to enforcement will be taken, with enforcement agencies working with and educating small foresters to support them in meeting the new requirements.

We intend to introduce a ban on the sale of all bagged traditional house coal one year from publication of the Government Response. For a transitional period of two years, approved coal merchants will be able to sell loose traditional house coal directly to customers. A phased transition gives additional time for the market for smokeless fuel to develop in response to the legislation and for small businesses to adjust.

As stated in the Government Response published on 21 February, we want to see a move from bituminous coal to less polluting fuels in the domestic setting. We will facilitate this transition by only allowing the sale of smokeless coal (or anthracite) and low sulphur manufactured solid fuels for the purpose of domestic combustion.

As stated in the Government Response published on 21 February, we want to see a move from bituminous coal to less polluting fuels in the domestic setting. We will facilitate this transition by only allowing the sale of smokeless coal (or anthracite) and low sulphur manufactured solid fuels for the purpose of domestic combustion.

Details on emissions of particulate matter (PM) by fuel type are not available for the latest year’s emissions inventory (first published 14 February 2020). This information will be available later in the spring via the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory website. Levels and trends in annual emissions of particulate matter in the UK are available from the National Statistics on emissions of air pollutants. These can be found at the following URL:

https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants

Data from the previous year’s inventory (published in 2019) indicate that approximately 3% of all PM_2.5 emissions and 2% of all PM₁₀ emissions in the UK were attributed to the domestic burning of coal in 2017. This equates to 3.3 kilotons and 3.4 kilotons of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ emitted from domestic coal combustion in 2017, respectively. These figures include the burning of anthracite which is coal with a high carbon content.

The Government Response to the consultation on cleaner domestic burning of solid fuels and wood was published on 21 February this year. The accompanying Impact Assessment includes a table which provides a regional, energy efficiency adjusted cost analysis for coal and smokeless fuels. This indicates that savings will be made in all the regions considered if households switch from coal to the cheapest smokeless fuel.

The Impact Assessment can be viewed at:

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/867428/burning-wood-consult-ia.pdf

The Government response to the consultation on cleaner domestic burning of solid fuels and wood was published on 21 February 2020. This outlines plans to restrict the sale, distribution and marketing of wet wood. The proposed policy will require suppliers of wood sold in volumes below 2m³ to have their product tested and certified to show that its moisture content is below 20%, those supplying wood in volumes greater than 2m³ will be required to provide their customers with instructions for seasoning wet wood, which will be accompanied by a warning advising that the wood is not suitable to be burnt without appropriate drying. Further to this, retailers of wood in volumes below 2m³ will be required to store it in a way that ensures its moisture content is kept below 20%.

Defra recognises that on face value, manufactured solid fuels (MSFs) are more expensive than coal, however, we are also aware that MSFs burn more efficiently than coal. Recent tests have found that coal is actually more expensive than MSFs when energy efficiency is taken into account. These tests suggest that coal burned on an open fire is more expensive per unit of heat output in all areas of England compared to the cheapest MSF fuel. The full results of the fuel efficiency tests have been published on gov.uk and can be found at the following link:

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/867429/burning-wood-consult-bsria-report1.pdf

The Government recently published its response to the consultation on using cleaner domestic burning of solid fuels and wood, which included proposals for the regulation of the sales, distribution and marketing of bituminous coal and wet wood sold in units of up to 2m³ and restricting the sale of manufactured solid fuels with a sulphur content greater than 2%. A full impact assessment was published alongside the Government response and is available on the GOV.UK website. This analysis estimates the following cumulative emission reductions between 2020 and 2030: 91.53kt of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), 24.9kt of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and 430kt of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).

[1] https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/air-quality-using-cleaner-fuels-for-domestic-burning

The data is provided as grams per kilogram (rather than grams per tonne) due to the scale of the data, for example for PM_2.5 emissions from coal, 8.7g/kg would become 8700g/tonne)

The PM_2.5 emissions in grams per kilogram of fuel used are:

(a) Household coal: 8.7g/kg

(b) Wet Wood: 28g/kg

(c) Dry wood: 7.2g/kg

(d) Oil for households (referred to as 'burning oil’ in the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory): 0.083g/kg

The data is provided as grams per kilogram (rather than grams per tonne) due to the scale of the data. It should be noted that harvested wood for bioenergy is considered to be carbon neutral, with the carbon dioxide (CO₂) absorbed as young trees grow compensating for that released by burning.

The CO₂ emissions in grams per kilogram of fuel used are:

(a) Household coal: 683g/kg

(b) Wet Wood: 0g/kg

(c) Dry wood: 0g/kg

(d) Oil for households (referred to as 'burning oil’ in the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory): 859g/kg

As outlined in our written ministerial statement of 24 February 2020 the purpose of our policy is to reduce people’s exposure to the most harmful pollutant to human health (PM2.5). While defined by its size, fine particulate matter in smoke from domestic combustion contains a wide range of chemical compounds, depending on what is being burnt. In developing this policy we have taken into account the clear advice of the World Health Organization’s International Agency for Research on Cancer, which has stated that emissions from coal combustion is a known carcinogen to humans. There is also strong evidence that burning coal can release elements and compounds into the indoor environment that are particularly harmful to human health. Based on this evidence, the World Health Organization has strongly recommended against the residential use of coal for heating.

The Government is committed to protecting human health, and the environment from the impacts of air pollutants. Based on the advice from the World Health Organization that emissions from coal combustion is a known human carcinogen, and that it should not be used for residential heating, we intend to continue including bituminous (house) coal in the proposed regulation of the sales, distribution and marketing of bituminous (house) coal and wet wood.

Defra commissioned analysis of heat output from a range of fuels to determine fuel efficiency and costs to consumers. The costs of fuels were investigated across six regions in England (North East, North West, Midlands, South East including East of England, and South West) which showed that manufactured solid fuels were, in general, cheaper when heat output was taken into consideration on an open fire.

The Secretary of State has not had discussions with her Irish counterpart on the Irish Government’s consultation.

We intend that a revised impact assessment will be published alongside our response to the consultation on the cleaner burning of solid fuels and wood in the near future.